The Bible and the Quran differ in their interpretation of which son was taken by Abraham for a burnt offering, which seems to be the major line of difference and divergence into two major religious beliefs, Christianity and Islam.

In the Hebrew Bible (Genesis 22), God commands Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac as a test of faith. The passage explicitly names Isaac, stating, “Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah and offer him there as a burnt offering.” At the last moment, an angel intervenes, and a ram is provided as a substitute. This event is central to Jewish and Christian traditions, reinforcing Isaac’s role in the covenant between God and Abraham’s descendants.

In Islamic tradition, the Quran does not explicitly name the son in the sacrifice story (Surah As-Saffat 37:99-113). However, most Islamic scholars and traditions identify Ishmael as the son who was to be sacrificed. The reasoning is that Ishmael was Abraham’s firstborn and lived with him before Isaac’s birth. Islamic scholars argue that the phrase “your only son” in Genesis 22 would have applied to Ishmael at the time, since Isaac was not yet born.

Moreover, some Islamic scholars believe that the name Isaac may have been inserted into the biblical text later, replacing Ishmael.

Secondly, Muslims celebrate Eid al-Adha, marking Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice Ishmael, while Jews and Christians do not have a similar annual observance for Isaac’s sacrifice.

The differences aside, Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham with Hagar (an Egyptian slave), is regarded in Islamic tradition as a prophet and the forefather of the Arab tribes. Ishmael is read as Ismail, Abraham as Ibrahim, and Hagar as Hazar in Islamic tradition. Ismail is regarded as the son of promise and a model of submission to God. The Quran narrates the story of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, identifying Ishmael as the one who was to be sacrificed. This act of obedience is celebrated as a cornerstone of Islamic faith, symbolizing submission to Allah’s will.

According to Islamic belief, Ishmael and his mother, Hagar, settled in Mecca due to events described in both the Bible and Islamic tradition. According to the biblical account, Sarah, Abraham’s wife, asked him to send Hagar and Ishmael away after the birth of Isaac, fearing that Ishmael would compete with Isaac for inheritance. Abraham, following divine guidance, sent them into the wilderness, where they eventually settled in the region of Paran, traditionally associated with Arabia

According to Islamic tradition, the story is expanded further. Abraham, under God’s command, brought Hagar and Ishmael to the barren valley of Mecca and left them there as part of a divine plan. Hagar desperately searched for water, running between the hills of Safa and Marwa, until God provided the Zamzam well, which became a crucial source of life in the desert. Ishmael grew up among the Arab tribes, married into them, and became an ancestor of Prophet Muhammad.

Ishmael married an Egyptian woman, as arranged by his father, Abraham. He had 12 sons, Nebaioth, Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadad, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah. These sons are considered the forefathers of the Ishmaelites, a group that spread across the Arabian Peninsula.

Over the generations, Ishmael’s descendants formed various tribes across the Arabian Peninsula. While Judaism and Christianity developed in the lands of Israel and surrounding regions, the descendants of Ishmael maintained their own traditions, largely separate from the religious developments of Isaac’s lineage. Arab then, had followers of different gods and goddesses. Idol worship was also a tradition. below are some Monotheistic and Polytheistic religions and believers in Arabia prior to when Ishmael and Hagar reached there.

Monotheism Vs. Polytheism in pre-Ishmael Arabia

The Arab tribes worshiped various deities, but the concept of monotheism remained present in some traditions, particularly through the influence of Abraham’s teachings. To explain pre-Ishmael Arabic religious traditions, Arabic tribes overrated numerous gods and goddesses, often associated with natural elements, fertility, and protection. Some of the most prominent deities were Hubal (a chief deity worshiped in Mecca), Al-Lāt, Al-‘Uzzā, and Manāt (three goddesses revered across the Arabian Peninsula), Sacred Stones and Idols (many tribes had shrines and idols representing their gods, including the Kaaba in Mecca, which housed numerous idols).

Despite widespread polytheism, monotheistic beliefs were present in Arabia, particularly among certain groups:

• Hanifs – A group of pre-Islamic monotheists who rejected idol worship and sought a purer form of faith. Some Hanifs, such as Zayd ibn Amr, were known for their devotion to one God.
• Jewish and Christian Communities – Judaism and Christianity had established communities in Arabia, particularly in Yemen, Najran, and Medina. These groups upheld monotheistic beliefs and influenced local traditions.
• Zoroastrianism – Some regions, particularly in eastern Arabia, had followers of Zoroastrianism, which emphasized the worship of Ahura Mazda as the supreme deity.

Transition to Islam

By the 5th and 6th centuries CE, monotheism gained traction, particularly through interactions with Jewish and Christian communities. Prophet Muhammad’s teachings in the 7th century CE reinforced monotheism, leading to the decline of polytheistic practices and the establishment of Islam as the dominant faith.

Ishmael’s Influence on Later Generations

After settling in Mecca, Ishmael’s descendants intermarried with local tribes, forming the foundations of the Arab people. Over generations, these tribes expanded across the Arabian Peninsula, developing distinct customs, languages, and traditions. While Judaism and Christianity flourished in the lands of Isaac’s descendants, the Arab tribes maintained their own religious practices, often centered around polytheistic worship.

The construction of Kaaba

The Kaaba is a sacred building situated at the center of the most prominent mosque in Islam, Masjid al-Haram (Mecca, Saudi Arabia). According to the Qur’an, Ibrahim and his son Ismail built the Kaaba on Allah’s instructions and it served as the first house of worship for mankind. It is believed that during the construction of the Kaaba, the angel Jibreel brought Ibrahim the Black Stone of Kaaba, which he placed in the Kaaba’s eastern corner. The Black Stone of Kaaba is believed to be one of the original structure’s only remnants built by Ibrahim since the remaining structure was demolished and rebuilt many times for maintenance over the history of Kaaba. Over time, Mecca grew into major trade and pilgrimage center.

Mecca was situated along major trade routes connecting Yemen, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. This made it a vital center for commerce, attracting merchants from various regions¹.

According to Islamic tradition, Abraham and Ishmael were commanded by God to build the Kaaba as a house of worship dedicated to monotheism. Ishmael is believed to have assisted his father in laying the foundation and constructing the structure. The Kaaba was originally a simple, cube-shaped building made of stone. During its construction, Abraham is said to have placed the Black Stone in one of its corners, a revered object that remains an integral part of the Kaaba today. The Black Stone holds deep religious significance in Islam and is believed to have been placed in the Kaaba by Abraham (Ibrahim) and Ishmael (Ismail) during its construction. According to Islamic tradition, when Abraham and Ishmael were rebuilding the Kaaba, Abraham instructed Ishmael to find a special stone to mark the corner of the structure. The Archangel Gabriel (Jibreel) then brought the Black Stone from Paradise, and Abraham placed it in the eastern corner of the Kaaba. This is how the Qur’an describes their building it together: “And when Ibrahim and Ismail were raising the foundations of the House (the Ka’bah) at Makkah, saying, “Our Lord! Accept this service from us. Verily! You are the All-Hearer, all Knower.’” ( Qur’an 2:127). When raised to a certain height, Ibraham ordered his son to choose a piece of stone to mark the main corner point. As Ismail was searching for it, the Archangel Jibrail (Gabriel) appeared with the Black Stone from Heaven. Prophet Muhammad “The Black stone descended from heaven, when it was whiter than Milk, but people’s sins have blackened it”. Ibraham took it up and fitted it in, and there it stands up to this day. It is a heavenly stone, then, and not an earthly one. It was selected by Allah for His Holy House (the Ka’bah). Pilgrims performing Hajj and Umrah try to kiss or touch the Black Stone, following the example of the Prophet Muhammad. It symbolizes monotheism and the connection between believers and God. Islamic tradition states that on the Day of Judgment, the Black Stone will testify for those who touched it with sincerity.

Even before Islam (birth of Muhammad, the Prophet), Arab tribes would visit Mecca to worship their deities, as the Kaaba housed numerous idols. The tradition of pilgrimage to Mecca existed before Islam, with tribes making annual journeys to honor their gods. This practice later transformed into the Islamic pilgrimage, known as Hajj, after Muhammad purified the Kaaba and restored its monotheistic purpose. This influx of pilgrims and traders contributed to Mecca’s wealth, making it one of the most influential cities in Arabia¹.

Importance of Kaaba

During the early phase of the Muhammad The Prophet’s era, the Kaaba, a cube-shaped building situated at the center of the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) was turned into the shrine of Allah, where people belonging to both Pagan and Christian tribes from the Arabian Peninsula visited every year to perform the Hajj pilgrimage. In 628 CE, the Prophet and some of his followers travelled to Mecca to perform Umrah, only to be refused entry by the Arab inhabitants of Mecca. Prophet Muhammad managed to secure a peace treaty with them, obtaining permission for the Muslims to perform the pilgrimage at the Kaaba from next year onwards¹.

In 630 CE, after the inhabitants of Mecca violated the treaty, Prophet Muhammad conquered the holy city. After Muhammad’s victorious return, the Kaaba turned into the focal point of worship and pilgrimage amongst Muslims¹.

Birth of Muhammad, The Prophet and rise of Islam

Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam, was born in 570 CE in Mecca, a city in present-day Saudi Arabia. His life and teachings transformed the religious, social, and political landscape of Arabia, leading to the establishment of Islam as a major world religion. His journey—from an orphaned child to a revered prophet—shaped the course of history and continues to influence millions of people worldwide.

Early Life of Muhammad

Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, around 40 generations after Abraham.  The Quraysh tribe was a powerful merchant group that controlled Mecca. His father, Abdullah, died before his birth, leaving Muhammad as his only son. His mother, Amina, passed away when Muhammad was just six years old. Orphaned at a young age, Muhammad was raised by his grandfather, Abdul-Muttalib, and later by his uncle, Abu Talib, who became his protector.

From a young age, Muhammad demonstrated qualities of fairness, truthfulness, and moral uprightness, gaining him a reputation for honesty and integrity. His character earned him the nickname “Al-Amin” (The Trustworthy) among the people of Mecca. As an orphan raised by his uncle, he worked as a merchant and shepherd, gaining firsthand experience in trade and social interactions. Unlike many traders of his time, Muhammad never engaged in deceitful practices such as false advertising, hoarding goods, or manipulating prices. His ethical approach to business earned him widespread respect.

Muhammad’s reputation as a trustworthy merchant led Khadijah, a wealthy businesswoman, to hire him to oversee her trading caravans. His successful management of these expeditions further cemented his standing in the business community. His honesty in financial dealings and his ability to negotiate fairly made him a preferred partner in trade.

One of the most famous events that highlighted Muhammad’s trustworthiness occurred during the reconstruction of the Kaaba around 605 CE. A dispute arose among Meccan tribes over who should have the honor of placing the Black Stone in its rightful position. To resolve the conflict, they agreed that the next person to enter the sacred precinct would decide. That person was Muhammad.

Instead of favoring one tribe over another, Muhammad proposed a fair solution: he placed the Black Stone on a cloak and asked representatives from each tribe to lift it together. This act of wisdom and impartiality reinforced his reputation as Al-Amin, the one whom all tribes could trust.

The First Revelation and the Call to Prophethood

Mecca was then a thriving trade center, but it was also plagued by social injustices, including idol worship, exploitation of the poor, and tribal conflicts. Muhammad, known for his integrity, was deeply troubled by these issues. With the backdrop of such “injustices”, and unlike most Meccans who worshiped multiple gods, Muhammad, believing in One True God began retreating in the cave of Hira located on Mount Hira and meditating.  He believed that he could gain a deeper understanding in One True God through meditation.

In 610 CE, at the age of 40, during one of his retreats to the Cave of Hira, where he meditated and sought spiritual guidance, he received his first revelation from the Angel Gabriel, who commanded him to “Recite!” This marked the beginning of his prophetic mission.

Ramadan became an official religious observance after the Prophet Muhammad received revelations from Allah. The Quran explicitly mentions fasting during Ramadan as a divine command:

“The month of Ramadan [is that] in which was revealed the Qur’an, a guidance for the people and clear proofs of guidance and criterion. So whoever sights [the new moon of] the month, let him fast it…” (Quran 2:185)

During Ramadan, Muslims observe fasting (sawm) from dawn to sunset, engage in prayer, reflection, and charity, and seek spiritual growth. The most sacred night within Ramadan is Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Power), believed to be when the Quran was first revealed to the Prophet Muhammad.

The month concludes with Eid al-Fitr, a celebration marking the end of fasting, with communal prayers, feasts, and acts of generosity.

Initially, Muhammad preached privately, sharing his message of monotheism, social justice, and compassion with close friends and family. Over time, he began publicly calling people to worship one God (Allah) and abandon idol worship. His teachings challenged the existing religious and social order, leading to opposition from Mecca’s elite.

Persecution and the Hijrah (Migration)

As Muhammad’s followers grew, the Quraysh leaders saw him as a threat to their power and traditions. Muhammad’s followers faced persecution, and many were forced to flee to Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia) for safety. In 622 CE, Muhammad himself migrated to Medina, an event known as the Hijrah, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

In Medina, Muhammad established a unified Muslim community (Ummah) and became both a spiritual and political leader. He introduced laws promoting justice, equality, and religious tolerance, laying the foundation for Islamic governance.

References

1. History of Kaaba: From Origin To Its Last Renovation in 1626. Accessed on May 1st, 2025 from: History Of Kaaba | The Religious History Of Kaaba Blackstone
2. Sandra Hearth., Why did Muhammad go to the caves?. Wellbeing Port. Accessed on May 1st, 2025 from: Why did Muhammad go to the caves?
3. The Pilgrim. The cave of Hira – Also Known as Jabal Al-Hira – The First Revealation. Accessed on May 1st, 2025 from: Cave of Hira | Also Known as Jabal Al-Hira | The First Revelation | Pilgrim
4. Wikipedia contributors. Muhammad [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; 2025 [cited 2025 May 1]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
5. Wikipedia contributors. Why did God bless Ishmael? [Internet]. Christianity.com; [date of publication unknown] [cited 2025 May 1]. Available from: https://www.christianity.com/wiki/people/why-did-god-bless-ishmael.html